FREEDOM OF SPEECH REFERENCES
Dr. Joanna Dodd Massey
i National Archives. "The Constitution of the United States: A Transcription." National Archives.
Accessed June 14, 2025. https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/constitution-transcript
ii National Archives. "Original Design of the Great Seal of the United States (1782)." National Archives.
Accessed June 14, 2025. https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/original-design-of-the-great-seal-of-the-united-states
iii National Archives. "The Declaration of Independence: A Transcription." National Archives.
Accessed June 14, 2025. https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/declaration-transcript
iv Samuel Johnson, Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary: Selections from the 1755 Work that Defined the English Language, ed. Jack Lynch (New York: Walker & Company, 2005), 318.
v Trump White House Archives. "Remarks by President Trump, Vice President Pence, and Members of the
Coronavirus Task Force in Press Briefing." Trump White House Archives, April 23, 2020. Accessed May 15, 2025. https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-vice-president-pence-members-coronavirus-task-force-press-briefing-31
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vi Marcus, Josh. "’USB drive’ Giuliani claimed was passed between election workers was really a ginger mint, witness tells Jan 6 hearing." The Independent, June 21, 2022. Accessed May 6, 2025. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/giuliani-trump-voter-fraud-usb-b2106364.html
vii Stempel, Jonathan. "Giuliani has fully satisfied Georgia election workers’ $148 million judgment." Reuters, February 24, 2025. Accessed May 6, 2025. https://www.reuters.com/legal/giuliani-has-fully-satisfied-georgia-election-workers-148-million-judgment-2025-02-24
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viii National Archives. "The Bill of Rights: A Transcript." National Archives. Accessed May 6, 2025. https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/bill-of-rights-transcript#toc-amendment-i
ix Coleman, Alisa White. "Time, place, and manner regulations and the Supreme Court." EBSCO, 2022. Accessed June 19, 2025. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/law/time-place-and-manner-regulations-and-supreme-court
x Founders Online "Thomas Jefferson to Isaac H. Tiffany, 4 April, 1819." National Archives. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/03-14-02-0191
xi National Archives. "The Bill of Rights: How Did It Happen?" National Archives. Accessed May 13, 2025.
https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/bill-of-rights/how-did-it-happen
xii National Archives. "The Bill of Rights: A Transcription." National Archives. Accessed March 25, 2025.
https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/bill-of-rights-transcript
xiii Ibid.
xiv Ibid.
xv Council of Europe. "Recommendation No. R (97) 20 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on 'Hate Speech.'" Council of Europe. Accessed June 19, 2025. https://www.coe.int/en/web/freedom-expression/committee-of-ministers-adopted-texts/-/asset_publisher/aDXmrol0vvsU/content/recommendation-no-r-97-20-of-the-committee-
of-ministers-to-member-states-on-hate-speech
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xvi U.S. Supreme Court. Packingham v. North Carolina, 582 U.S. ___ (2017). Supreme Court of the United States. Accessed March 23, 2025. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/16pdf/15-1194_08l1.pdf
xvii Sandra Day O’Connor Institute for American Democracy. "What Is the History of the Public Square?" Civics for Life. Accessed March 27, 2025. https://civicsforlife.org/what-is-the-history-of-the-public-square/
xviii Robertson, Claire E., Kareena S. del Rosario, and Jay J. Van Bavel. "Inside the fun house mirror factory: How social media distorts perceptions of norms." ScienceDirect, December 2024. Accessed May 16, 2025. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352250X24001313
xix Schiffer, Zoë and Casey Newton. "Yes, Elon Musk created a special system for showing you all of his tweets first." Platformer, February 14, 2023. Accessed May 6, 2025. https://www.platformer.news/yes-elon-musk-created-a-special-system
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xx Milmo, Dan. "Rohingya sue Facebook for £150bn over Myanmar genocide." The Guardian, December 6, 2021. Accessed March 26, 2025. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/dec/06/rohingya-sue-facebook-myanmar-genocide-us-uk-legal-action-social-media-violence
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xxi U.S. House of Representatives Office of the Law Revision Counsel. "47 USC 230: Protection for private blocking and screening of offensive material." House.gov. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=(title:47%20section:230%20edition:prelim)
xxii Moon, Jenna. "Twitter ended its COVID-19 misinformation policy. Here are other major changes under Elon Musk." Semafor, November 29, 2022. Accessed March 26, 2025. https://www.semafor.com/article/11/29/2022/a-list-of-twitters-moderation-policy-changes-under-elon-musk
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xxiii Lunden, Ingrid. "Meta drops fact-checking, loosens its content moderation rules." TechCrunch, January 7, 2025. Accessed March 26, 2025. https://techcrunch.com/2025/01/07/meta-drops-fact-checking-and-loosens-its-content-
moderation-rules/
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xxiv U.S. Supreme Court. Gonzalez v. Google, 598 U.S. ___ (2023). Supreme Court of the United States. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/22pdf/21-1333_6j7a.pdf
xxv Huszár, Ferenc, Sofia Ira Ktena, Conor O'Brien, Luca Belli, Andrew Schlaikjer, and Moritz Hardt. "Algorithmic Amplification of Politics on Twitter." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 119, no. 1 (2022): e2025334119. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34934011/
xxvi Anderson v. TikTok, No. 22-3061 (3d Cir. 2024). Accessed March 27, 2025. https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/ca3/22-3061/22-3061-2024-08-27.html
xxvii U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary. "Durbin Delivers Opening Statement During Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on Stopping the Exploitation of Children Online." Senate Judiciary Committee, February 19, 2025. Accessed March 27, 2025. https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/press/dem/releases/durbin-delivers-opening-statement-during-
senate-judiciary-committee-hearing-on-stopping-the-exploitation-of-children-online
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xxviii Phelps, Elizabeth A., and Joseph E. LeDoux. “Contributions of the Amygdala to Emotion Processing: From Animal Models to Human Behavior.” Neuron 48, no. 2 (2005): 175–187. Accessed June 28, 2025.
https://www.cell.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0896-6273%2805%2900823-8
xxix U.S. Supreme Court. Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 315 U.S. 568 (1942). Library of Congress. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep315/usrep315568/usrep315568.pdf
xxx U.S. Supreme Court. Terminiello v. City of Chicago, 337 U.S. 1 (1948). Library of Congress.
Accessed March 25, 2025. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep337/usrep337001/usrep337001.pdf
xxxi U.S. Supreme Court. R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, Minnesota, 505 U.S. 377 (1992). Library of Congress.
Accessed March 25, 2025. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep505/usrep505377/usrep505377.pdf
xxxii U.S. Government Accountability Office. "Online Extremism Is a Growing Problem, But What’s Being Done About It?" GAO Blog, February 13, 2024. Accessed March 22, 2025. https://www.gao.gov/blog/online-extremism-growing-problem-whats-being-done-about-it
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xxxiii Relia, Kunal, Zhengyi Li, Stephanie H. Cook, and Rumi Chunara. "Race, ethnicity and national origin-based discrimination in social media and hate crimes across 100 US cities." In Proceedings of the international AAAI conference on web and social media, vol. 13, pp. 417-427. 2019. Accessed March 22, 2025. https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/3354
xxxiv United Nations Hate Speech Video Series. "Hate Speech and Real Harm." UN.org. Accessed March 22, 2025. https://www.un.org/en/hate-speech/understanding-hate-speech/hate-speech-and-real-harm
xxxv Human Rights Campaign Staff. "New Human Rights Campaign Foundation Report: Online Hate and Real-World Violence Are Inextricably Linked." Human Rights Campaign, December 13, 2022. Accessed March 22, 2025. https://www.hrc.org/press-releases/new-human-rights-campaign-foundation-report-online-hate-real-world-violence-are-inextricably-linked
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xxxvi Black’s Law Dictionary. 12th ed. Edited by Bryan A. Garner. St. Paul, MN: Thomson Reuters, 2024. s.v. “libel.” Accessed June 14, 2025. https://1.next.westlaw.com/Link/Document/FullTextfindType=Y&pubNum=223765&cite=BLACKS12THL12210&originatingDoc=I00fec6a8808511e4b391a0bc737b01f9&refType=DA&originationContext=document&transitionType=DocumentItem&ppcid=57c2916440334abfab5114b528376edf&contextData=(sc.Search)#co_pp_sp_223765_libeln.2
xxxvii U.S. Supreme Court. Beauharnais v. Illinois, 343 U.S. 250 (1952). Library of Congress. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep343/usrep343250/usrep343250.pdf
xxxviii Maher, Kit and Chris Boyette. "JD Vance defends baseless rumor about Haitian immigrants eating pets." CNN, September 15, 2024. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://www.cnn.com/2024/09/15/politics/vance-immigrants-pets-springfield-ohio-cnntv/index.html
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xxxix Norton, Tom. "Fact Check: Trump Shares Misleading Video About Animal Abuse After Debate." Newsweek, September 12, 2024. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://www.newsweek.com/donald-trump-cats-dogs-claim-debate-video-fact-check-election-2024-1952779
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xl Rubinkam, Michael and Julie Carr Smythe. "What to know about the threats in Springfield, Ohio, after false claims about Haitian Immigrants." Associated Press, September 23, 2024. Accessed March 25, 2025.
https://apnews.com/article/springfield-ohio-haitian-immigrants-threats-key-details-
7594bae869fb05dc6f106098409418cc
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xli Jordan, Miriam. "An Ohio Businessman Faces Death Threats for Praising His Haitian Workers." New York Times, September 30, 2024. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/30/us/springfield-ohio-haitians-threats.html
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xlii European Commission. "The Digital Services Act Package." European Commission. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/digital-services-act-package
xliii U.S. Supreme Court. New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254 (1964). Library of Congress. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep376/usrep376254/usrep376254.pdf
xliv U.S. Supreme Court. Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444 (1969). Library of Congress. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep395/usrep395444/usrep395444.pdf
xlv Cole, David. "Defending Speech We Hate." American Civil Liberties Union, April 18, 2024. Accessed March 27, 2025. https://www.aclu.org/news/civil-liberties/defending-speech-we-hate
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xlvi Gnaneshwar, Rajan and Nandita Bose. "Zuckerberg Says Biden Administration Pressured Meta to Censor COVID-19 Content." Reuters, August 27, 2024. Accessed June 17, 2025. https://www.reuters.com/technology/zuckerberg-says-biden-administration-pressured-meta-censor-covid-19-content-2024-08-27
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xlvii Electronic Frontier Foundation. "Section 230: 47 U.S.C. § 230." Electronic Frontier Foundation. Accessed March 27, 2025. https://www.eff.org/issues/cda230
xlviii U.S. Congress. "H.R.4624 – Algorithmic Justice and Online Transparency Act." Congress.gov, July 13, 2023. Accessed June 17, 2025. https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/4624
xlix Awasthi, Soumya. "From Clicks to Chaos: How Social Media Algorithms Amplify Extremism." Observer Research Foundation, February 13, 2025. Accessed March 27, 2025. https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/from-clicks-to-chaos-how-social-media-algorithms-amplify-extremism
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l Balsamo, Mike. "In Exclusive AP Interview, AG Barr says no evidence of widespread election fraud, undermining Trump." Associated Press, December 11, 2020. Accessed May 18, 2025. https://www.ap.org/news-highlights/best-of-the-week/2020/exclusive-interview-with-attorney-general-barr-nets-massive-scoop/
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li Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency. "Joint Statement from Elections Infrastructure Government Coordinating Council & the Election Infrastructure Sector Coordinating Executive Committees." Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency, November 12, 2020. Accessed May 18, 2025.
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lii U.S. Supreme Court. Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. 343 (2003). Library of Congress. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep538/usrep538343/usrep538343.pdf.
liii Legal Information Institute. "Products Liability." Cornell Law School. Accessed March 27, 2025.
https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/products_liability
liv GovInfo.gov. "42 U.S.C. 2000e-2 – Unlawful Employment Practices." GovInfo. Accessed May 16, 2025.
https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/USCODE-2010-title42/USCODE-2010-title42-chap21-subchapVI-sec2000e-2
lv Federal Communications Commission. "Obscene, Indecent and Profane Broadcasts." FCC.gov. Accessed March 29, 2025. https://www.fcc.gov/consumers/guides/obscene-indecent-and-profane-broadcasts
lvi U.S. Supreme Court. FCC v. Pacifica Foundation, 438 U.S. 726 (1978). Justia. Accessed March 29, 2025.
https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/438/726/
lvii Legal Information Institute. "47 U.S. Code § 151—Purpose of chapter; Federal Communications Commission created." Cornell Law School. Accessed July 4, 2025. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/47/151
lviii Ibid.
lix Cotter, Padraig. "Why MASH’s Finale Is Still the Most Watched TV Episode of All Time." ScreenRant, September 24, 2022. Accessed March 25, 2025. https://screenrant.com/mash-show-finale-most-viewed-tv-episode/
lx Nielsen News Center. "Super Bowl LVIII Draws 123.7 Million Average Viewers, Largest TV Audience on Record." Nielsen, February 2024. Accessed May 17, 2025. https://www.nielsen.com/news-center/2024/super-bowl-lviii-draws-123-7-million-average-viewers-largest-tv-audience-on-record/
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lxi Sprinklr. "Social Media in America: 10 Stats that are Changing in 2025." Sprinklr, February 17, 2025.
Accessed May 17, 2025. https://www.sprinklr.com/blog/social-media-in-america
lxii European Commission. "Digital Services Act." European Commission. Accessed May 17, 2025.
https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/europe-fit-digital-age/digital-services-act_en
lxiii European Commission. "The enforcement framework under the Digital Services Act." European Commission. Accessed May 17, 2025. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/dsa-enforcement